Among the Ibo speaking people in the Cross River delta region of Nigeria, a men's organization known as the "human leopard" (Egbo, Ekpe or Ngbe) society emerged sometime in the 17th century.  These groups are often misdescribed as "secret" societies, although in reality, says Daniel Offiong, "[t]he existence and declared purpose of these societies is known to every adult and quite often their many activities contribute to make them a dominant social force." Instead, say Leib and Romano, "[w]hat is secret is the knowledge the initiate can "see" (understand), and the powers, both social and spiritual, afforded him through this knowledge...." This knowledge has considerable cachet, and is carefully guarded: "[o]ne Ngbe chief told us that if the secrets were divulged, no one would be interested in joining."  

What is known is that the Ekpe society originated with the Efik, who settled in the Cross River estuary sometime in the late 17th century and who became prosperous by trading with Europeans, first in slaves, later in palm oil. Realizing that traditional Efik social structure of small, autonomous clusters of kin groups could impede commerce and often resulted in intergroup disputes,  the Efik developed the Ekpe society, which had religious overtones but, more importantly, allowed its members to reach across the traditional boundaries of family, community, and ethnicity, creating according to A.J.H. Latham "a genuinely African capitalist institution."  Elaborate rules ensured that no member accrued more than his share of power and knowledge, both valuable tools for accruing wealth and prestige. By the early 1800s Ekpe societies were widespread in the region.   

Each village had its own Ekpe lodge, which ran on a carrot- and-stick system:  Ekpe slave trading houses gave their members access to European credit, while the threat of slavery kept members from defaulting on their loans or otherwise failing to live up to their obligations.  Ikwo Ekpo notes that in the past, revealing secrets to outsiders was punishable by death. Other sources describe the use of cannibalism as a bonding ritual; even if this were only a rumor, it would certainly have had a powerful effect on the general community.  After the slave trade ended, Ekpe societies evolved into a kind of underground resistance aimed at subverting colonial rule; in the early 20th century membership included "educated Christian clerks, traders, head men and chiefs of towns, and even [Christian] catechists and missionaries".  Ekpe societies have sometimes been compared to fraternal groups such as the Masons, but such a comparison understates the extent of Ekpe power and influence on the general population. Although membership in both is voluntary, Ekpe societies were quasi-governmental in nature. Today Ekpe and similar "secret" societies continue to operate as community councils, settling disputes, judging offenders, ensuring members meet their responsibilities, and generally promoting social cohesion. 

All members are adult males, not every man in the community is a member, and only those entitled by birth can be promoted beyond general membership to higher levels of knowledge and power (the number of levels has increased exponentially in the past century). Slaves are restricted to general membership. While a few wealthy women are given "honorary" membership, they are never initiated; Ekpe mythology justifies this exclusion by saying that although women founded Ekpe, they were expelled forever when they proved themselves unable to keep its secrets. (Women have a corresponding society called Ekpa (of unknown origin date), but their ritual objects are controlled by Ekpe (men's) societies, and apparently they have no patterned cloths).

When a man joins an Ekpe society, he commissions an indigo and white "ukara" by sketching a design on plain white cloth, incorporating the Ekpe symbols he has learned (including the blue and white triangles symbolizing a leopard's paw), other motifs  known as nsibidi (or nsibiri) whose design and symbolism has evolved over time, and unique images whose meaning is known only to himself.  Local women then embroider the cloth with raffia and dye it with indigo, producing a stitched-resist, white-on-indigo design (known by the Yoruba as adire alabere). Members wear or display their ukara only on ritual occasions; otherwise the cloths are carefully stored away. Women's ignorance of Ekpe secrets further enhances ukara's mystique.  

 In construction method and design, Ukara are similar to adire alabere cloths, which do not appear to have existed before the 18th century.  It is not known whether modern ukara resemble those in use in the slave trade era, or whether ukara were in use then at all, especially since ukara do not seem to be mandatory; members of Ekpe societies formed after the 19th century and in other regions wear george, a plaid wrapper originally imported from India but since the late 20th century manufactured in Africa. 

Although a large number of American slaves came from the region where Ekpe flourished, society members were overwhelmingly slave traders rather than slaves, and most of the slaves taken from that region were female. While Ekpe symbols may have been generally familiar to the public, their meaning would have been known only to the limited population of adult male Ekpe members.  Finally, the designs on ukara have a specific, ritual and secret purpose that would seem inappropriate on a household object such as a quilt, and since most examples are recently made, we do not know what design changes may have occurred over the centuries, or even if ukara were in use during the slave trade era.  Any connection between the appearance of modern ukara and African-American quilts must therefore be regarded as coincidental.

Dyed patterns: Dida tie-dyed raffia cloth

In earlier centuries the Dida and Godie, small communities in the Ivory Coast, used to weave a unique tie-dyed textile that today is almost never made. Heirloom cloths are still used ceremonially, but how they are worn has changed.  It is not known whether or how many of these people may have been brought to the US as slaves; they may have been lumped in with the Bamana.

he Dida and Godie are minority populations sitauted between the Baule and Dan people in Ivory Coast (south of the Bamana people), who before they adopted cotton typically wore  barkcloth. For special occasions, however, such as births, marriage and funeral ceremonies, they wore cream-colored raffia cloth tie-dyed in shades of brown and coral pink.  Because of the time and skill required to produce these cloths, they were considered luxuries which attested to the wearer's social status.  

While men's raffia cloth was a large, flat panel woven on an upright loom, women's raffia cloth was unlike any other garment in Africa.  Made by women without a loom, it was braided in tubular form, and may have been derived from the bags used in the region to carry rice.  

The ends of the cloth were tied into a decorative fringe, and the entire cloth, about 18"x48", was carefully tie-dyed in regular geometric patterns whose harmonious colors softly blend.   The tying left the fabric with a delicate puckered texture.

Women wore this tubular cloth like a loincloth, extending between their legs and suspended front and back from a belt.   Political upheaval in the 1980s forced families to sell many of these heirloom cloths to collectors, and they are rarely seen today except at the most important of official festivals, where they are worn hanging in front like an apron, or have been cut open, pressed flat, and used to construct a garment.   See other examples of Dida cloth here.